A comparative antioxidant, antimicrobial, and biocompatible potential of various extracts of Solanum virginianum
Keywords:
Solanum Virginianum, aqueous extract, ethanolic extract, anti-bacterial, anti-oxidant, toxicity
Abstract
Oral health challenges, such as microbial resistance, biofilm formation, and oxidative stress, necessitate innovative therapeutic solutions in dental care. This study evaluates the extraction yield, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and biocompatibility potential of Solanum virginianum extracts using aqueous and ethanolic solvents. The extraction yield was noticed to be higher in the ethanolic solvent than in the water extraction. The antioxidant potential was assessed using the DPPH assay, where ethanolic extracts demonstrated superior radical scavenging activity than the aqueous extracts. Antimicrobial efficacy was evaluated against important oral pathogens, Streptococcus mutans, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, using agar well diffusion methods. The outcome of the antibacterial assay showed that ethanolic extracts revealed enhanced antibacterial activity against these pathogens compared with the water extract. The highest antibacterial activity was observed against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (18 mm), followed by S. mutans, S. aureus, and E. coli. Further, biocompatibility of the extracts was studied by analyzing the toxicity in zebrafish embryos and in vitro hemolytic assays, which also implies that they did not impose any toxicity, suggesting their safe usage in therapeutic applications. This study highlights S. virginianum, particularly ethanolic extracts, as a promising natural resource for oral care and clinical applications. Their robust antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, combined with excellent biocompatibility, may position them as viable alternatives to conventional and synthetic drugs. Future research should focus on clinical trials and formulation development to fully harness their therapeutic potential in therapeutic interventions.
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22. Modzelewski, S., Stankiewicz, A., Waszkiewicz, N., & Łukasiewicz, K. (2025). Side effects of microdosing lysergic acid diethylamide and psilocybin: A systematic review of potential physiological and psychiatric outcomes. Neuropharmacology, 271, 110402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2025.110402
23. Pandiyan, I., Arumugham, M. I., Doraikannan, S. S., Rathinavelu, P. K., Prabakar, J., & Rajeshkumar, S. (2023). Antimicrobial and Cytotoxic Activity of Ocimum tenuiflorum and Stevia rebaudiana-Mediated Silver Nanoparticles - An In vitro Study. Contemporary Clinical Dentistry, 14(2), 109–114. https://doi.org/10.4103/ccd.ccd_369_21
24. Pavithra, S., Paulraj, J., Rajeshkumar, S., & Maiti, S. (2023). Comparative evaluation antimicrobial activity compressive strength conventional thyme-modified glass ionomer cement. Annals Dental Specialty, 11(1-2023), 70–77.
25. Priyadharshini, G., Gheena, S., Ramani, P., Rajeshkumar, S., & Ramalingam, K. (2023). Assessment antimicrobial efficacy cytotoxicity Cocos nucifera Triticum aestivum combination gel formulation therapeutic use. World Journal Dentistry, 14(5), 414–418.
26. Rajeshkumar, S., & Lakshmi, T. (2021). Green synthesis gold nanoparticles using kalanchoe pinnata its free radical scavenging activity. Int J Dentistry Oral Sci, 8(7), 2981–2984.
27. Ramsundar, K., Jain, R. K., Balakrishnan, N., & Vikramsimha, B. (2023). Comparative evaluation bracket bond failure rates novel non-primer adhesive conventional primer-based orthodontic adhesive-a pilot study. Journal Dental Research, 17(1).
28. Rieshy, V., Chokkattu, J. J., Rajeshkumar, S., & Neeharika, S. (2023). Mechanism action clove ginger herbal formulation-mediated TiO2 nanoparticles against lactobacillus species: vitro study. Journal Advanced Oral Research, 14(1), 61–66.
29. Selvam, R. (2022). The Practice of Embodying Emotions: A Guide for Improving Cognitive, Emotional, and Behavioral Outcomes. North Atlantic Books. https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=ZhLhDwAAQBAJ
30. Selvam, R. (2023). Verkörperte Gefühle: Guten Zugang zu seinen Gedanken, Emotionen und Verhaltensweisen finden - Ein Praxisbuch für Therapie und Alltag. Kösel-Verlag. https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=3BScEAAAQBAJ
31. Shenoy, A., Maiti, S., Nallaswamy, D., & Keskar, V. (2023). An in vitro comparison of the marginal fit of provisional crowns using the virtual tooth preparation workflow against the traditional technique. Journal of Indian Prosthodontic Society, 23(4), 391–397. https://doi.org/10.4103/jips.jips_273_23
32. Singh, S., Prasad, A. S., & Rajeshkumar, S. (2023). Cytotoxicity, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of camellia sinensis and citrus mediated copper oxide nanoparticle-an in vitro study. Journal of International Society of Preventive & Community Dentistry, 13(6), 450–457. https://doi.org/10.4103/jispcd.JISPCD_76_23
33. Singh, T. A., Sarangi, P. K., & Singh, C. B. (2024). High-Value Plants: Novel Insights and Biotechnological Advances. CRC Press. https://books.google.com/books/about/High_Value_Plants.html?hl=&id=ZYgYEQAAQBAJ
34. Sivakumar, N., Geetha, R. V., Priya, V., Gayathri, R., & Ganapathy, D. (2021). Targeted phytotherapy forreactive oxygen species linked oral cancer. Int J Dent Oral Sci, 8.
35. Stankiewicz, K., Lipkowski, A., Kowalczyk, P., Giżyński, M., & Waśniewski, B. (2024). Resistance Welding of Thermoplastic Composites, Including Welding to Thermosets and Metals: A Review. Materials (Basel, Switzerland), 17(19). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17194797
36. Subramanian, A. K., Lalit, H., & Sivashanmugam, P. (2023). Preparation, characterization, and evaluation of cytotoxic activity of a novel titanium dioxide nanoparticle-infiltrated orthodontic adhesive: An in vitro study. World Journal of Dentistry, 14(10), 882–887. https://doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-10015-2319
37. Thomas, & Jain, R. K. (2023). Influence operator experience scanning time accuracy two different intraoral scanners-a prospective clinical trial. Turkish Journal Orthodontics, 36(1).
38. Website. (n.d.). Aas, J. A., Paster, B. J., Stokes, L. N., Olsen, I., & Dewhirst, F. E. (2005). Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 43(11), 5721–5732. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.43.11.5721-5732.2005
2. Abbas, N., Chehade, L., Tarhini, H., Abdul Sater, Z., & Shamseddine, A. (2025). Trends and Gaps in Colorectal Cancer Screening Research in the Arab World: A 16-Year Bibliometric Analysis (2007-2023). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 22(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22020264
3. Aksoy, A., Duran, N., Toroglu, S., & Koksal, F. (2007). Short-term effect of mastic gum on salivary concentrations of cariogenic bacteria in orthodontic patients. The Angle Orthodontist, 77(1), 124–128. https://doi.org/10.2319/122205-455R.1
4. Al-Huqail, A. A., Alghanem, S. M. S., Alhaithloul, H. A. S., Abbas, Z. K., Al-Balawi, S. M., Darwish, D. B. E., Ali, B., Malik, T., & Javed, S. (2024). Selenium mitigates vanadium toxicity through enhanced nutrition, photosynthesis, and antioxidant defense in rice (Oryza sativa L.) seedlings. BMC Plant Biology, 24(1), 1071. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-024-05790-2
5. An, L., & Zhao, T. S. (2018). Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells: Principles, Materials and Systems. Springer. https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=Oq9SDwAAQBAJ
6. Chokkattu, J. J., Neeharika, S., Brahmajosyula, I. P., & Thangavelu, L. (2023). Comparative Evaluation Cellular Toxicity Three Heat Polymerized Acrylic Resins: Vitro Study. World, 14(6).
7. Chung, Y. S., Baek, J. K., Choi, E., Kim, H.-R., Kim, H., Lee, Y. J., Yun, B. H., & Seo, S. K. (2025). Long-Term Survival of Endometriosis-Related Ovarian Clear Cell Carcinoma with Endometriosis Surgical History. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 14(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14051550
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9. Dharman, S., Maragathavalli, G., Shanmugam, R., & Shanmugasundaram, K. (2023). Biosynthesis Turmeric Silver Nanoparticles: Its Characterization Evaluation Antioxidant, Anti inflammatory, Antimicrobial Potential Against Oral Pathogens vitro Study. Journal Indian Academy Oral Medicine Radiology, 35(3), 299–305.
10. Doshi, K., Nivedhitha, M. S., Solete, P., Dp, S., Jacob, B., & Siddique, R. (2023). Effect adhesive strategy universal adhesives noncarious cervical lesions-an updated systematic review meta-analysis. BDJ open. 9.
11. Forssten, S. D., Kolho, E., Lauhio, A., Lehtola, L., Mero, S., Oksaharju, A., Jalava, J., Tarkka, E., Vaara, M., & Vuopio-Varkila, J. (2010). Emergence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae during the years 2000 and 2004 in Helsinki, Finland. Clinical Microbiology and Infection : The Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 16(8), 1158–1161. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010.03068.x
12. Gandhi, J. M., Gurunathan, D., Doraikannan, S., & Balasubramaniam, A. (2021). Oral health status for primary dentition - A pilot study. Journal of the Indian Society of Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry, 39(4), 369–372. https://doi.org/10.4103/jisppd.jisppd_155_21
13. Govindaraj, P., & Shanmugam, R. (2023). Effect chlorhexidine fluoride varnish incidence white spot lesion orthodontic patients. Annals Dental Specialty, 11(1-2023), 35–39.
14. Habeeb Rahuman, H. B., Dhandapani, R., Narayanan, S., Palanivel, V., Paramasivam, R., Subbarayalu, R., Thangavelu, S., & Muthupandian, S. (2022). Medicinal plants mediated the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their biomedical applications. IET Nanobiotechnology, 16(4), 115–144. https://doi.org/10.1049/nbt2.12078
15. Janani, K., Teja, K. V., & Ajitha, P. (2021). Cytotoxicity of oregano essential oil and calcium hydroxide on L929 fibroblast cell: A molecular level study. Journal of Conservative Dentistry: JCD, 24(5), 457–463. https://doi.org/10.4103/JCD.JCD_560_20
16. Jones, M. U., Richard, S. A., Malloy, A. M. W., Colombo, R. E., May, J., Saunders, D., Lindholm, D. A., Ganesan, A., Sablak, C., Hickey, P. W., Dobson, C. P., Pollett, S. D., Flanagan, R., & EPICC COVID-19 Cohort Study Group. (2025). Clinical Characteristics and Outcomes of Cardiac Findings in Young Persons Following SARS-CoV-2 Infection. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 44(4), 342–345. https://doi.org/10.1097/INF.0000000000004617
17. Kachhara, S., Nallaswamy, D., Ganapathy, D., & Ariga, P. (2021). Comparison of the CBCT, CT, 3D printing, and CAD-CAM milling options for the most accurate root form duplication required for the root analogue implant (RAI) protocol. Journal of Indian Academy of Oral Medicine and Radiology, 33(2), 141–145. https://doi.org/10.4103/jiaomr.jiaomr_244_20
18. Katyal, D., Jain, R. K., Sankar, G. P., & Prasad, S. (2023). Antibacterial, Cytotoxic, Mechanical Characteristics Novel Chitosan-Modified Orthodontic Primer: : In-Vitro: Study. Journal International Oral Health, 15(3), 284–289.
19. Kepp, K. P., Aavitsland, P., Ballin, M., Balloux, F., Baral, S., Bardosh, K., Bauchner, H., Bendavid, E., Bhopal, R., Blumstein, D. T., Boffetta, P., Bourgeois, F., Brufsky, A., Collignon, P. J., Cripps, S., Cristea, I. A., Curtis, N., Djulbegovic, B., Faude, O., … Ioannidis, J. P. A. (2024). Panel stacking is a threat to consensus statement validity. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 173, 111428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2024.111428
20. L, A., Krishna Kumar, J., & Shanmugam, R. (2024). Formulation of Quercetin Mouthwash and Anti-microbial Potential Against Critical Pathogens: An In-Vitro Evaluation. Cureus, 16(1), e51688. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.51688
21. Lampl, S., Gurunathan, D., Krithikadatta, J., Mehta, D., & Moodley, D. (2023). Reasons for Failure of CAD/CAM Restorations in Clinical Studies: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. The Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice, 24(2), 129–136. https://doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-10024-3472
22. Modzelewski, S., Stankiewicz, A., Waszkiewicz, N., & Łukasiewicz, K. (2025). Side effects of microdosing lysergic acid diethylamide and psilocybin: A systematic review of potential physiological and psychiatric outcomes. Neuropharmacology, 271, 110402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2025.110402
23. Pandiyan, I., Arumugham, M. I., Doraikannan, S. S., Rathinavelu, P. K., Prabakar, J., & Rajeshkumar, S. (2023). Antimicrobial and Cytotoxic Activity of Ocimum tenuiflorum and Stevia rebaudiana-Mediated Silver Nanoparticles - An In vitro Study. Contemporary Clinical Dentistry, 14(2), 109–114. https://doi.org/10.4103/ccd.ccd_369_21
24. Pavithra, S., Paulraj, J., Rajeshkumar, S., & Maiti, S. (2023). Comparative evaluation antimicrobial activity compressive strength conventional thyme-modified glass ionomer cement. Annals Dental Specialty, 11(1-2023), 70–77.
25. Priyadharshini, G., Gheena, S., Ramani, P., Rajeshkumar, S., & Ramalingam, K. (2023). Assessment antimicrobial efficacy cytotoxicity Cocos nucifera Triticum aestivum combination gel formulation therapeutic use. World Journal Dentistry, 14(5), 414–418.
26. Rajeshkumar, S., & Lakshmi, T. (2021). Green synthesis gold nanoparticles using kalanchoe pinnata its free radical scavenging activity. Int J Dentistry Oral Sci, 8(7), 2981–2984.
27. Ramsundar, K., Jain, R. K., Balakrishnan, N., & Vikramsimha, B. (2023). Comparative evaluation bracket bond failure rates novel non-primer adhesive conventional primer-based orthodontic adhesive-a pilot study. Journal Dental Research, 17(1).
28. Rieshy, V., Chokkattu, J. J., Rajeshkumar, S., & Neeharika, S. (2023). Mechanism action clove ginger herbal formulation-mediated TiO2 nanoparticles against lactobacillus species: vitro study. Journal Advanced Oral Research, 14(1), 61–66.
29. Selvam, R. (2022). The Practice of Embodying Emotions: A Guide for Improving Cognitive, Emotional, and Behavioral Outcomes. North Atlantic Books. https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=ZhLhDwAAQBAJ
30. Selvam, R. (2023). Verkörperte Gefühle: Guten Zugang zu seinen Gedanken, Emotionen und Verhaltensweisen finden - Ein Praxisbuch für Therapie und Alltag. Kösel-Verlag. https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=3BScEAAAQBAJ
31. Shenoy, A., Maiti, S., Nallaswamy, D., & Keskar, V. (2023). An in vitro comparison of the marginal fit of provisional crowns using the virtual tooth preparation workflow against the traditional technique. Journal of Indian Prosthodontic Society, 23(4), 391–397. https://doi.org/10.4103/jips.jips_273_23
32. Singh, S., Prasad, A. S., & Rajeshkumar, S. (2023). Cytotoxicity, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of camellia sinensis and citrus mediated copper oxide nanoparticle-an in vitro study. Journal of International Society of Preventive & Community Dentistry, 13(6), 450–457. https://doi.org/10.4103/jispcd.JISPCD_76_23
33. Singh, T. A., Sarangi, P. K., & Singh, C. B. (2024). High-Value Plants: Novel Insights and Biotechnological Advances. CRC Press. https://books.google.com/books/about/High_Value_Plants.html?hl=&id=ZYgYEQAAQBAJ
34. Sivakumar, N., Geetha, R. V., Priya, V., Gayathri, R., & Ganapathy, D. (2021). Targeted phytotherapy forreactive oxygen species linked oral cancer. Int J Dent Oral Sci, 8.
35. Stankiewicz, K., Lipkowski, A., Kowalczyk, P., Giżyński, M., & Waśniewski, B. (2024). Resistance Welding of Thermoplastic Composites, Including Welding to Thermosets and Metals: A Review. Materials (Basel, Switzerland), 17(19). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17194797
36. Subramanian, A. K., Lalit, H., & Sivashanmugam, P. (2023). Preparation, characterization, and evaluation of cytotoxic activity of a novel titanium dioxide nanoparticle-infiltrated orthodontic adhesive: An in vitro study. World Journal of Dentistry, 14(10), 882–887. https://doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-10015-2319
37. Thomas, & Jain, R. K. (2023). Influence operator experience scanning time accuracy two different intraoral scanners-a prospective clinical trial. Turkish Journal Orthodontics, 36(1).
38. Website. (n.d.). Aas, J. A., Paster, B. J., Stokes, L. N., Olsen, I., & Dewhirst, F. E. (2005). Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 43(11), 5721–5732. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.43.11.5721-5732.2005
Published
2024-04-15
How to Cite
A. Annika Rajaselin, Dr. Mahathi Neralla, & Dr. Baskar V. (2024). A comparative antioxidant, antimicrobial, and biocompatible potential of various extracts of Solanum virginianum. Revista Electronica De Veterinaria, 25(1), 4528-4535. https://doi.org/10.69980/redvet.v25i1.2388
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